Afghanistan’s mineral resources: a historical review of geological studies and discoveries

Afghanistan, known as the ‘Crossroads of Asia,’ boasts a rich geological heritage characterized by diverse mineral resources and important discoveries. Herein, we comprehensively review geological studies on Afghanistan from ancient mining practices through colonial exploration to modern scientific advancement based on historical analysis and qualitative synthesis. We categorize geological exploration into ancient practices, early exploration, systematic surveys, and international modernization. Ancient mining operations, including at Badakhshan lapis lazuli mines, underscore Afghanistan’s role in early trade and metallurgy. Colonial-era explorations by British, German, and Soviet geologists laid the foundation for systematic geological surveys, leading to discoveries such as the Haji Gak iron and Aynak copper deposits. Modern revitalization efforts, driven by international collaboration and advanced technologies, have uncovered substantial lithium, rare earth elements, and hydrocarbon reserves, positioning Afghanistan as a potential global resource hub. We highlight the impact of sociopolitical disruption on scientific progress and underscore the role of international partnerships in rebuilding Afghanistan’s geological sector. Afghanistan’s untapped mineral resources hold transformative potential for economic growth and regional stability, contingent upon sustainable resource management, capacity building, and infrastructure development. Our findings highlight a path forward for preserving Afghanistan’s geological resources while harnessing its resource potential and achieving environmental and socioeconomic balance.