Hidden mining capitalism, mineral transportation chain, and gendering livelihoods in Africa's artisanal and small-scale mining: Evidence from northern Ghana

Despite the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) literature on mineral transportation roles and gender inequalities, there has been little empirical investigation and theorization of how the mineral transportation chain perpetuates hidden labor exploitation and contributes to the gender pay gap in the sector. This paper conceptualizes “hidden mining capitalism” to explore the often concealed labor exploitation of women's work in the mineral transportation chain in Africa's ASM industry using the case of Northern Ghana. Drawing from our qualitative research, findings highlight that women's involvement in different stages of the mineral transportation chain from the extraction of the mineralized rocks (e.g. gold ore) to the crushing, shanking (i.e. sieving), milling, and washing centers are unremunerated, thus revealing socio-historically and structurally embedded dynamics of women's livelihoods, economic exploitation, and dimensions of “gendered sympathy” towards women in ASM settings. Findings also reveal that rural poverty causes increasing feminization of ASM operations, resulting in women's surplus labor that further produces several pathways for economic exploitation and unsafe working environment. Our inquiry showcases that intersectional factors (such as age, social networks, shanking experience, and ethnicity) shape women's access to transportation and processing roles as mining livelihoods to advance their economic independence and overall well-being. In exploring the above issues, we raise questions about women's role in the mineral transportation chain, particularly those related to economic exploitation (e.g. shanking) and the need for gender-sensitive on-site formalization policies.